Introduction par Ahmedou Ould Abdallah, president centre4s

In the Sahel, violent terrorism—now structural—and various forms of trafficking, including that of migrants, are linked structural realities. The agonizing Trans borders cooperation is dwindling. Deadly and also costly to national public finances, they now are protracted and a hallmark of the region’s identity! Several causes explain or stand behind these developments. All are linked to the fragility and porosity of national borders and, above all, to the now tribalistic nature of Sahel governments. More than ever, tribes and clans are at the helm, to the detriment of national unity and security.

 

Ensuring populations security and hopefully their economic development requires peaceful cross-border cooperation that is understood and embraced by governments and the people who live there. Focusing on the rearview mirror and the colonial past does not offer a lasting solution but promises continued accidents, such as those experienced in the Sahel now for more than a decade.

Are the borders of the Sahel states and of Africa in general, more artificial than those of other countries in the rest of the world, particularly in the Global South or of the former colonial powers themselves? Whether a source of or an excuse for wars between countries, modern interstates borders were defined by the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648 after the so-called 30 and 100 Years’ Wars in Europe. The objective: to promote peace between states or, at the very least, to reduce the causes of wars!

At this point, it is important to remember that, almost everywhere in the world, interstate borders are artificial, separating peoples of the same culture and History, etc. Central Asia, formerly Soviet, is a perfect illustration of that with its « Stans »: Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, etc. The same is true in North America (USA – Canada), Latin America states, Asia, and elsewhere, including Europe, where populations of the same languages ​​and cultures live alongside different nationalities in Border States: Basques, Catalans, Flemish, Serbians, Swedes, etc. Therefore, « artificial » borders are not unique to Africa!

Regarding Africa, Article III, paragraph 3, of the 1963 OAU Charter stipulates: « Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each State and its inalienable right to an independent existence. » This principle of the inviolability of borders adopted at the Cairo Summit on July 21, 1964, aims at stability between newly independent states and sought to avoid civil wars and anarchy across the continent emerging from colonization. Thus, Article III has generally been respected by independent African states. Only Morocco and Somalia, rejecting the fragmentation of their countries, have expressed a different opinion by formally opposing it.

Today, across the Sahel, including in the countries around Lake Chad, armed violence is becoming entrenched year after year. Islamist terrorism, according to many observers, is in reality a « retribalization, » where, faced with governments that are increasingly lesser national and more clan-based; a return to pre-colonial, and therefore tribal solidarity is reasserting itself and worse spreading!

Summary of discussions.

Paul AMARA, consultant at the Center for Strategies for Security in the Sahel-Sahara, Centre4s.org

Cross-borders cooperation is also about what happens within communities and the relationships they maintain with each other. Social cohesion, both within and between them, is a stability and development asset. It is also important for states relationships. Sharing a common vision is needed between populations on both sides of borders. Often, these are the same families and ethnicities, separated by borders divisions made during colonization. Borders symbolize the necessity of one country citizens to live peacefully with those of neighboring countries. These two entities are shaped by geography and history. Cross-border cooperation can be defined as « any consultation aimed at strengthening and developing neighborly relations between local authorities and territorial communities of two or more contracting parties. » It corresponds to the relationships maintained by the State decentralized authorities, its decentralized entities, as well as economic actors on both sides of the border. It also relies on cultural and social exchanges and populations’ flows. It also takes into account the management of issues relating to countries security and defense, especially in the context of insecurity in the Sahel.

For the African Union, within the framework of its Borders Program, « cross-border cooperation is any act or policy aimed at promoting and strengthening good neighborly relations between border communities, local authorities and administrations, or any other relevant actors of two or more States, including the conclusion of agreements and arrangements useful for that purpose. » Administrative cooperation is also included, extending to the authorities of border countries. Sahel countries have become aware of borders issues and have made its management a priority. Niger established a National Border Commission on January 7, 1975. Mali established a National Border Directorate on March 13, 1999. Burkina Faso did it on December 30, 2013 and Mauritania has a Border Management Commission since July 10, 2018.

  Land related conflicts.

The majority of classic conflicts in the Sahel are land-related. Then there are conflicts between farmers and herders, water-related conflicts, religious conflicts, and conflicts between brotherhoods, successions of traditional chiefdoms, and social, ethnic, and political hierarchies. Some also involve conflicts over leadership or legitimacy between civilians and the military. Together, all of these constitute what are called community conflicts. Their consequences include, among other things, the deterioration of communal coexistence, the weakening of intra- and inter-community relations, human rights violations, and destruction. Regardless of the degree of diplomatic, political or even military conflict between two countries, it is recommended to refrain from undermining these ties. Given the « sense of tribal belonging, » they are far more important, in peoples ‘eyes, than their respective formal nationalities. At no time, especially during periods of insecurity, should contact be severed between the two contiguous States, otherwise the very existence of neighboring peoples could be jeopardized. It is more prudent to establish frameworks for consultation and regular dialogue between public administrations and communities.

At the same time, States have an interest in implementing projects that promote common interests and values. They can also deploy conflict prevention and management programs using endogenous community mechanisms. The administration and justice systems must be technically equipped to prevent and resolve such conflicts. Along the same lines, supporting the establishment of spaces for ongoing dialogue between defense and security forces, local authorities, and community representatives should help prevent or better manage conflicts. A shared vision is necessary between cross-border populations. Indeed, terrorists recruit and select from within communities (see table). Therefore, cross-border cooperation between municipalities also needs to be promoted and supported.

Table of armed terrorist groups present in the Sahel

Groupe Armé Terroriste	Date/Lieu de création	Zones d’opérations	Communautés
Boko Haram	2002, au Nigéria	Frontières Nigeria-Cameroun Frontières Nigeria-Niger Frontières Nigéria-Tchad Mali	Ethnie kanuri, au départ puis recrutements dans les États du nord du Nigéria, du Tchad et du Niger: enfants des écoles coraniques (Medersa) Femmes et jeunes filles ; Personnes défavorisées et déclassées.
État islamique en Afrique de l’ouest (The Islamic State’s West Africa Province (ISWAP)	2015 au Nigéria	Frontières Nigéria-Cameroun Nigeria-Niger Frontières Nigéria-Tchad	Idem
Ansarul islam	2016, Burkina Faso	Frontières Burkina Faso – Mali	Peuls
Groupe de soutien à l’islam et aux musulmans (GSIM) ou Jama’at Nusra al-islam (JNIM)	2017, Mali	Algérie-Mali, frontières Mali-Burkina, Mali-Niger, Burkina-Bénin, Burkina-Togo	Peuls, Touarègues et Bambara
Katiba Macina	2015, Mali	Mali-Burkina Faso	Peuls et jeunes en situation de précarité ou en rupture avec les autorités locales
État islamique au Grand Sahara (EIGS)	2015, Mali	Zone des ‘’Trois frontières’’	Touarègues et Arabes

Source: Table prepared from various documents collected by the center4s

Cross-borders cooperation focuses on what happens within communities and the relationships they maintain with each other across borders. Social cohesion, both within and between them, is an asset. The importance of borders for security is demonstrated in many ways: the « the Liptako Gourma three borders » are the epicenter of attacks against the three states of the Sahel Alliance States, with terrorists crossing the borders of one to attack other countries (see table). The so-called « Three Borders » area, where the territories of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger intersect, is a crossroads of all dangers. It includes northern Burkina Faso, including the provinces of Oudalan and Soum, western Niger with the Tillabéry region, and the Malian Gourma, which stretches between Hombori and Ansongo.

The entity, also called « Liptako-Gourma », is the object of particular attention of these three countries, which dedicate an organization to it, the Liptako Gourma Authority (ALG), established on December 3, 1970, in Ouagadougou. Initially, as a development cooperation organization, it was to develop its mineral resources (manganese, phosphate, cement limestone, iron, gold, etc.), energy, hydraulic, agro-pastoral and fishery. It has an area of ​​370,000 km², or 19.29% of the total area of ​​the 3 Member States or 57.44% of the area of ​​Burkina Faso; 20.64% of that of Mali; 9.70% of that of Niger. In 2023, Liptako Gurma was home to 23 million people, 80% of whom were of rural origin. Current events are now dominated by security issues.

Borders recognition.

Recognizing the importance of borders for cooperation between neighbors is a prerequisite for peace between populations and countries. It constitutes a foundation for living together. However, borders are generally porous. Moreover, a border is rarely easy to draw, demarcate, and even less so to monitor. The countries concerned must develop a shared vision, allocate financial resources, and deploy appropriate human staffss. Indeed, border management, in addition to its cost, contains the seeds of conflict, which can be resolved amicably or through armed confrontation. The case of Niger illustrates all of these challenges. The National Border Commission’s missions, among others, are to inventory, study, and analyze documents relating to the country’s borders, with a view to their delimitation and demarcation. Of the 5,690 km of Nigerien border lines, 85.87%, or 4,869 km, are demarcated; 50.37%, or 2,866.32 km, are demarcated and marked; 35.19%, or 2,002.68 km, are demarcated but not marked; 14.43%, or 821 km, still need to be demarcated and marked. Niger shares long borders with countries that are or were all confronted with terrorism: Algeria, 956 km; Benin, 277 km; Burkina Faso, 630 km; Libya, 350 km, on which there is no demarcation; Mali, 851 km, also without demarcation; Nigeria, 1,500 km; and Chad, 1,168 km of artificial borders, with the exception of a small portion located in the bed of Lake Chad. After skirmishes, Niger and Benin had to resort to the International Court of Justice in The Hague to resolve the dispute over ownership of the border islands located in the Niger Delta and the Mecrou River. As a result, 19 islands were awarded to Niger and 9 to Benin in 2005.

It should also be noted that poorly drawn borders caused two wars between Mali and Burkina Faso, from December 15 to 17, 1974, and from December 14 to 30, 1985.

In a Sahel region marked by terrorism, cross-border cooperation remains fragile. When jihadists, after attacking one country, take refuge in another… one can then speak, as it were, a deficit or absence of cross-border cooperation.

 In fine, borders and terrorism are another hallmark of the Sahel-Sahara.